it is not so much as a theologian or writer that we have to regard cyprian, but as a great administrator;
the greatest in fact that the church had known since paul.
under him the power of the episcopate was thoroughly consolidated
and what is known as monarchical episcopacy,
in contrast to the presidential episcopacy attributed to earlier times,
became an established and permanent fact.
he was essentially an organizer and a statesman.
under him we find the church going forth as an organized body of active workers to relieve suffering.
from him we get an account of the diseased state of the body politic and of the attitude the church should take towards social questions.
by him the essential unity of the church was emphasized
and the importance of the sacramental system as a bond of that union.
(note: great, up to the last sentence...is not the person of Christ alone the bond between any two believers?)
thascius cyprianus was born probably about the beginning of the third century;
for he was certainly in advanced middle life, when, in 246, being at that time
a lawyer, man of property and cultivated gentleman of carthage,
he was converted to christianity by caecilianus, whose name he took at his baptism.
in the following year he was ordained priest,
and in the second of his christian life he became by popular acclamation
bishop or pope of carthage and so head of the great african church.
..the title of pope which was usually given to cyprian, rather than bishop, is not without interest.
in the early church the two titles were often interchangeable, pope giving the idea of Father in God.
it was found in many french sees;
at jerusalem, alexandria and elsewhere; generally, however, in important sees.
it is rather strange that it does not appear in the catacombs till about 300,
although it was evidently the formal mode of addressing cyprian in 250.
rome, therefore, was rather late in adopting the title,
and not till 1073 did gregoryVII forbid any other see to use it,
although about 400 the bishop of rome began to be known as THE pope.
early in 250 the storm of the decian persecution fell on the church throughout the empire.
nothing like it had been known before.
hitherto christianity had been unlawful, but emperors had generally discouraged
persecution or punishment where it could be legally avoided.
the persecutions were generally local,
and it is doubtful whether they came seriously under the notice of the emperors in most cases.
magistrates had been incited to punish by the populace;
now it was the magistrates that incited the mob.
for decius, in his desire to restore ancient rome and to follow out the ideal of trajan,
found that 'pagan society was in the meshes of a net,
whose steadily increasing strength and extent had baffled all attempts to destroy it'.
for the next 60 years, therefore, there is a 'fight to the finish'
between the organized forces of the empire and the Church,
instituted by the powers at rome and ending in 313 with the final triumph of the Church.
orders were now given everywhere to attack the bishops.
cyprian prudently retired from carthage and ruled his church from a distance,
preferring to choose his own time for martyrdom.
during the whole of this year there was no bishop of rome at all;
fabian was martyred in january and it was thought prudent to leave the see vacant.
the presbyters who temporarily governed the roman church wrote two simultaneous letters to cyprian;
one describing the death of fabian, which he warmly acknowledged;
the other hinting that cyprian would do well to follow his example;
which C in his reply trusted might be a forgery,
as it had neither authentication, nor address, nor style.
this gentle irony brought the roman clergy, with whom...'the aroma of infallibility lingered,
to a truer appreciation of cyprian's position.
at carthage, while many of the christians, the Stantes (?) or Standfasts, behaved splendidly,
endured both torture and martyrdom,
the numbers of the Lapsed were far greater than C had expected,
even among the clergy, most of whom deserted or lapsed;
one country bishop carrying most of his flock over to paganism.
but this principally happened during the initial panic.
the passion for martyrdom soon began to spread,
and alongside of it the heartbroken remorse of the Lapsed,
who had excommunicated themselves and sought restoration.
the Lapsed were divided into three classes:
the sacrificati, who had actually joined in the pagan sacrifices
the thurificati, who had thrown incense on the altar
the Libellatici, who had received certificates,
or Libelli of paganism.
the word libellus sometimes referred to the certifying document received
and sometimes to the written statement they presented. it came to the same thing.
but there was another libellus, the libellus pacis, which caused great trouble.
a custom arose, comparatively innocent at first, for the martyrs and confessors
to give a letter, or libellus pacis, to a lapsed friend,
which he was to take to the bishop, entreating restoration on their intercession
and through the merit of their martyrdom or confession.
this rapidly grew into a right to absolve the lapsed,
and eventuated in a general absolution by those in prison of all the Lapsed outside.
the result, of course, was the complete dissolution of discipline.
the statesmanship of cyprian was pre eminently displayed in the way he dealt with this difficulty in
the first three councils of carthage.
but from this custom dates, in history at any rate, the whole roman catholic theory of
superfluous Merit, Supererogation and Indulgences;
the Treasury of the Merits of the Saints, which the church on earth can apply.
in a modified form the practice had existed in tertullian's time but it is only from now
that it becomes a serious question.
in the early part of 251 decius left rome to fight the goths,
and the persecution almost ceased in carthage.
cyprian returned and a number of bishops assembled at carthage to hold a council.
the romans also ventured to elect a bishop, cornelius;
a man of gentle character, inclined to forgiveness and therefore too mild for the puritan party of rome,
who considered apostasy a crime that men could never absolve.
the persecution of decius soon passed away and from 253-60 valerian was on the throne.
at first he acted with much toleration, but later he was induced to change his policy.
the decian attack on the bishops had been found fruitless.
either the bishops disappeared as missionaries to another field
or they actively governed their dioceses from hiding places;
or, if they were killed, fresh bishops immediately took their place.
in 258 therefore, orders were issued for the destruction of all the clergy;
and it was in this persecution that cyprian fell.
in the previous year he had been exiled to curubis, a town about 50 miles away.
here he had a dream of martyrdom, in which he foresaw the manner in which it was to take place
and which therefore he regarded as an intimation that his time was come.
a year after he had gone into exile a new proconsul, galerius, sent for him;
but being ill at utica, told him to remain in his own house at carthage.
shortly afterwards he ordered him to come to utica;
but C, determined to die among his own people, disappeared.
so soon as galerius reappeared in carthage, cyprian was at home again.
after a short trial, he was condemned to be beheaded.
..he is the only latin Father really recognized by the east;
and he is the only saint commemorated in the roman mass by name,
who was neither a member of the roman church nor martyred at rome.
and this is the more wonderful, because apparently he died excommunicated by rome.
as cyprian is the last great Father before the close of the period of persecution,
it will be useful to give here a short summary of the remaining persecutions.
gallienus (260-8) in effect, though not formally, made christianity a lawful religion.
aurelian (270-5) not only left christians alone, but decided a lawsuit about church property in their favour.
he was, however, on the point of initiating a new persecution when he was murdered.
diocletian (284-305), like his predecessors, decius and trajan, made a grand attempt to restore old rome
by a reconstitution of the empire and therefore desired a national religion.
he was naturally averse from bloodshed, but persecution became necessary to his plan.
at the feast of the terminalia in 303, a concerted attempt was made to destroy all churches,
and especially all copies of the scripture.
those who gave up copies were called Traditores, and at this time many old and independent manuscripts
were lost.
all clergy were to be imprisoned and held as hostages.
at last came an edict that chirstians were everywhere to be exterminated unless they sacrificed,
and christian virgins sent to houses of ill fame.
this was probably the most terrible period of all and known as the tenth wave.
but it was the last that counted.
in 311 galerius issued a curious edict of toleration.
christians were reviled as obstinate diddenters;
but persecution having failed, they were to be tolerated, if they did not break the discipline
and would pray for the imperial house.
in 312 and 313 came at last the edicts of constantine for universal toleration of all religions.
chronological sketch from 313-373
314 edict of milan. toleration of all creeds by constantine and his brother in law, licinius, emperors.
319 arius, priest of the bacaulis church in alexandria, begins preaching that the Lon is not eternal but created
320 arius, secundus (bishop) and theonas (bishop)
and 12 clergy excommunicated by a synod at alexandria.
*arius, retires to palestine and enlists the sympathy of many eastern bishops.
*rise of athanasius as deacon of bishop alexander of alexandria.
*within a few years the whole east is infected with arianism.
*alexandria the home of orthodoxy
*constantine, under influence of eusebius of nicomedian
writes a vexed letter to alexander that the church was rent over a foolish question
and finally consents to a council of the whole church.
324 toleration of all creeds enforced, by pagans are strongly advised by the emperor to adopt christianity.
325 the council of nicaea establishment of the catholic creed
and the HOMO-OUSION ('being of the same substance or essence with the Father.
*secundus, theonas and arius exiled.
326 constantine summons arius to argue before him.
death of alexander
athanasius, bishop (archbishop?) of alexandria
329 eusebius of nicomedia in court favour, a decided arian.
*growth of semi-arian party under eusebius of caesarea who hold the Homo-ousion (of like substance.).
and arian synod at antioch slanders eustathius, the catholic bishop, at court and he is deposed.
*split of the church of antioch.
331 arius returns to alexandria.
*athanasius rejects him.
*all sorts of trumpery (something without use or value) charges raised against athanasius
-that he had taxed the egyptian to provide linen vestments
-that he had sent a box of gold to a rebel
-that he had broken the chalice and spit the elements of an arian eucharist
-that he had murdered arsenius, a monk , and used his dead hand for magic, etc.
*he is summoned to court and all charges refuted.
*eusebius of nicomedia demands a council, which is held at tyre
at which athanasius produces arsenius with both hands on.
*a commission appointed which collects evidence in egypt from jews, pagans and catechumens.
evidence of catholics not accepted.
*athanasius stops the cavalcade of constantine in constantinople and demands justice.
the council at tyre condemns athanasius on the evidence of the commission.
333..all charges against athanasius dropped and a new one raised,
that he had tried to stop the corn ships.
335 constantine in despair sends athanasius to treves.
335-8 arius at constantinople.
*bishop alexander refuses him communion
*arius threatens to enforce it
*alexander prays that either arius or himself may die, rather than this happen.
*arius dies suddenly on his way to church.
*death of alexander in 336
*his catholic successor, paul, deposed and an arian appointed.
*the east generally is now arian: the west, catholic
337 death of constantine
338 first return of athanasius
*athanasius accused of appropriating charities
*protest against his resuming his see after being deposed by the recent council
*he appeals to bishop julius of rome.
*eusebius of nicomedia bishop of constantinople
340 gregory (arian) intruded into see of alexandria by the state with a guard of soldiers.
*riot and persecution of catholics
*athanasius goes to rome with two monks. (first monk there)
*death of eusebius of caesarea
341 julius invites the arians to a council at rome.
*after making all sorts of excuses, especially that christianity started in the east and not rome,
they hold a council of their own at antioch...the dedication council
this was semi arian, but was called by st. hilary of poitiers a synod of holy men
and its canons are still respected in the east.
-it confirmed the deposition of athanasius on the basis of the 28th apostolic canon,
which was afterwards used against chrysostom.
-it also issued a creed based on that of lucian of antioch, generally catholic, but refusing the word
Homo-ousion.
-the trinity three in person, one in concord.
*julius calls a council of 50 westerns, who acquit athanasius
342 constans now rules in the west alone.
*death of eusebius of nicomedia.
*semi arians present a creed to constans, which condemns the arian postition:
'there was a TIME when He was not. (ie. it was before time.
*creed rejected.
343 athanasius retires from rome to milan.
*the council of sardica. 170 bishops with a small western majority came.
-easterns refuse to act with them and adjourn to philippopolis,
where they hold one of their own, which the call 'of sardica'.
*the west refuses to alter or add to the nicene creed.
344 much eastern persecution of catholics
scandalous treachery of stephen, arian bishop of antioch, who is deposed.
*this, followed by western deputation to constantius, supported by constans,
causes former to recall athanasius.
346 second return of athanasius, followed by his 10 years of 'deep and wondrous peace'.
350 death of constans. constantius, after a struggle with magnentius, becomes sole emperor.
-under his influence, the west and even italy, is infected with arianism:
and from this point there is a steady fall in the catholic fortunes for 10 years.
paul of constantinople exiled for second time, and constantinople the stronghold of arianism for 30 years.
352 liverius pope
353 athanasius sends envoys to the emperor, who refuses to receive them and orders him to milan.
*councils of the westerns at arles. nearly all the west gives up athanasius
on condition that the east abandons its heresy, which condition entirely fails.
*liberius in disgust disowns the council and calls for another.
*eusebius of vercellae and lucifer of cagliari in sardinia become the two strongest supporters of orthodoxy.
355 council at milan (300 westerns and a few easterns)
-in spite of a bold stand by a small minority against the emperor,
the council condemns athanasius and agrees to communion with arians.
*lucifer, eusebius of vercellae and dionysius of milan exiled.
*hillary, for calling it 'a synagogue of malignants' is scourged.
*general persecution.
*liberius and hosius exiled.
*felix, anti pope
*hilary writes his first book to constantius, being a defence of religious freedom of opinion.
356 an arian council at beziers refuses to hear him and he is banished to phrygian
where he writes his book on the trinity.
*state officials attack church of theonas at alexandria during service.
*athanasius, smuggled away by the monks, escapes to the egyptian monasteries,
where he writes the arian history and the discourses against the arians.
*george intruded in his place.
*persecution of catholics.
357 council of sirmium (called the third).
*the blasphemia creed
'subjection of the Son in common with all the things which the Father hath made subject to Himself.'
358 fall of pope liberius, who owns communion with leading arians
and is therefore reinstated at rome.
*cyril of jerusalem becomes very influential about now.
he had been consecrated in 351, and was reputed a great saint,
although he disliked the word homo-ousion.
*semi arians ask for a general council,
but it is decided to hold a western council at ariminum and an eastern council at seleucia.
*hillary writes 'on the faith of the easterns',
an attempt to establish mutual concessions between catholics and semi arians.
*'the Dated Creed' prepared at court to be presented for acceptance at both councils.
it was generally catholic, but omitted all mention of ousia.
359 ariminum and seleucia before the dated creed arrived at ariminum,
the west had strongly declared for the nicene.
there were 320 catholics and 80 arians present and each side sent reports to court.
meanwhile at seleucia the Dedication (semi arian) creed was confirmed.
the catholic envoys to court were made to sign a Homaean Creed and take it back to ariminum
where the council first disowned it, but were subsequently coerced into it.
360 this is the lowest point touched by catholicism,
and the time at which jerome said, 'the world groaned and was astonished to find itself arian.'
*liberius refused to sign the new creed.
*a council at paris votes strongly for the Homo-ousion, and encourages a recovery of catholicism.
*meletius appointed bishop of antioch,
and in spite of semi arian antecedents takes a strong catholic position.
361-3 reign of julian the apostate. unsuccessful attempt to rebuild the temple.
all exiled bishops allowed by julian to return, in order to cause confusion in the church.
362 third return of athanasius.
*small council at alexandria, at which Hypostasis is understood
by some to mean Essence and by some Person.
much difficulty is removed and a great step made towards drawing parties together.
*julian at antioch discovers the faded reputation of the daphne.
*translation of the remains of st. babylas.
*julian tries to attack athanasius, "the despicable little mannikin'
*athanasius says the cloud will soon pass, and julian, though a young man, shortly after dies.
363 jovian, emperor for only a few months; a catholic who receives instruction in the faith from athanasius.
364 valentinian, emperor in west (catholic)
*valens, emperor in east (arian).
*hilary banished for his attack on auxentius, arian bishop of milan.
*the alexandrian council also had tried to deal with the schism at antioch;
with help of lucifer, who goes there to try and mend matters.
he finds the eustathians (strict catholics) in schism against meletius
and foolishly consecrates paulinus, their chief.
*rome supports paulinus, and excommunicates meletius.
370 athanasius very reluctantly follows rome and narrowly escapes a quarrel with basil,
who becomes bishop of caesarea in cappadocia from now to 379 and is a great friend of meletius.
371 great persecution of catholics by valens.
*rise about this time of the macedonian heresy, that the holy Ghost was created.
373 death of athanasius.
*basil in the east and ambrose in the west become now the principal church leaders.
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